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MADRID/WASHINGTON —They are known as "illegals" - spies who operate under the guise of normal jobs.
Since Russia lost many of its valuable spy assets when dozens of diplomats were expelled from Western countries after the invasion of Ukraine, these civilian agents have become essential.
Experts in Russian intelligence told VOA that this was the "renaissance of illegals," with 90% of operations now carried out by these shadowy figures.
The August 1 hostage swap, in which American journalists and Russian rights activists were exchanged for an assassin and spies, exposed how some of these "illegals" operate.
Many manage to avoid detection by working in innocuous jobs that allow them access to events and people of interest to Moscow. The prisoner swap included supposed art dealers and a freelance journalist.
President Vladimir Putin welcomed back Russian couple Artem and Anna Dultsev, who posed as Argentinians and ran a tech start-up and gallery in Slovenia, and Spanish-Russian freelance reporter Pablo Gonzalez, also known as Pavel Rubtsov.
On the surface, Gonzalez worked as a reporter for media outlets that included DW and VOA, specializing in Eastern Europe and the Caucasus. But in reality, according to the head of the British MI6 secret service, he was gathering information on Russian opposition groups and trying to destabilize Ukraine in the run up to Moscow's full-scale invasion.
Polish authorities detained Gonzalez in February 2022. Until August 1, he was held in a high-security jail on charges of spying for Russia - allegations he had denied.
Media watchdogs condemned the conditions in which Poland held Gonzalez, but footage of him being welcomed by Putin after the swap appeared to confirm his primary role was spy craft, not journalism.
Gonzalez himself gave VOA a cryptic answer to a request for an interview. Referring to an earlier VOA article about his release, Gonzalez said through his Spanish wife, Oihana Goiriena, "If there are no more speculations, then I don't know what you want to talk about."
Russian roots
Speaking perfect Russian and Spanish, Gonzalez forged a career in journalism after studying Slavic studies at the University of Barcelona. But despite his new life in the West, he retained much sympathy for his country of birth.
A source with knowledge of the Russian intelligence sector who did not want to be named told VOA that Gonzalez grew up in Spain's Basque country, where sympathies for a regional independence movement are common - and, in left-wing circles, support for Putin is not unusual.
This meant many who met him did not question his pro-Russian leanings; far fewer suspected he secretly worked for Russian intelligence.
"This is a renaissance for illegals," Oleksandr V. Danylyuk, an expert in subversive Russian and Soviet special services, told VOA from Kyiv.
"Historically, it was so difficult to travel abroad. [These spies] can travel, they can live, they can join governments, businesses," said Danylyuk, who is an associate fellow of the London-based Royal United Services Institute, a defense think-tank.
"Some people are still not convinced that illegals are important, but it is 90% of all the [Russian intelligence] activity."
Danylyuk said part of their value is that millions of Russians - and foreign-national Kremlin sympathizers - can travel freely without suspicion.
"They can travel to Silicon Valley and steal secrets, and they can recruit Westerners. Why would you need to use diplomats?" he said. "For some specific tasks, yes, but in fact for other operations you would use illegals, and you would have spymasters."
Danylyuk said one purpose of illegals is to exert influence on the Western world by infiltrating radical protest groups or opposition organizations.
In 2016, Gonzalez engaged with leaders of the Boris Nemtsov Foundation for Freedom - named after the Russian opposition politician assassinated in 2015 - where he became close with key members of the group.
Nemtsov's daughter and co-founder of the foundation, Zhanna Nemtsova, said she was a target of Gonzalez's espionage.
"I was the first to tell Agentstvo about Pablo Gonzalez/Pavel Rubtsov in May 2023 after I had access to the case materials," she wrote on the social media X platform on August 27. Agentstvo is an independent Russian media outlet.
Gonzalez collected detailed reports on his contacts with Nemtsova and the foundation, Agentstvo said.
Spy operations
Marc Marginedas, a correspondent for Spanish newspaper El Periodico, said despite the expulsions of Russian diplomats after the Ukraine invasion, the Russian intelligence service is like a small army.
"Tens of thousands of people work for the different branches of the intelligence services in Russia. Some sources elevate this to hundreds of thousands if it includes those working not on a regular basis," said Marginedas, who specializes in the former Soviet states and Middle East.
Staff in Russian embassies and state-run media organizations, he added, are probably forced to work in some kind of intelligence capacity.
Marginedas agreed that "illegals" are now a mainstay of Moscow's spying operation.
"Russia has invested heavily in 'illegal' agents who do not enjoy diplomatic protection," he said.
"They provide them with a personal alibi that is very difficult to track down. Latin American countries, with not very tight controls and regulations when providing citizenship to foreigners, are very useful for this purpose."
Marginedas said that Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine resulted in large numbers of suspected Russian spies being expelled from embassies around the world. So, when Putin appeared at the airport in Moscow to welcome the agents in the prisoner swap in August, it sent a specific message.
"Following the war in Ukraine and the mass expulsions of Russian diplomats from Western countries, its capacities were seriously undermined," Marginedas said.
"Putin, by receiving those people with pomp at [Moscow's] airport and promising them jobs and medals, was sending out the message to the future spies that the Russian state will not abandon its spies."
A journalist who knew Gonzalez said his real identity came as a shock.
Xavier Colas, who works for the Spanish newspaper El Mundo, has known Gonzalez since 2014 when they met in Ukraine.
"He was not a person who pretended to be a journalist. He really was one. He did reports and traveled and knew what he was talking about," Colas said. "He styled himself as an expert in Ukraine and other [post-Soviet] republics. He knew his stuff."
Colas, whom Russia expelled earlier this year, also said Gonzalez espoused "pro-Russian" arguments that attacked Ukraine and the European Union, and claimed Alexey Navalny, the late opposition leader imprisoned by Russia, was being treated well by the Russian government.
Navalny died in a penal colony in the Arctic in February.
"Gonzalez's opinions were very pro-Russian. But he was not some stupid young radical journalist. He knew what he was talking about, but his arguments did not make sense," Colas remembers.
He said that Gonzalez worked for mostly regional newspapers such as the pro-separatist Basque Gara newspaper, but he never seemed short of funds to travel to all parts of Ukraine and Syria.
Gonzalez worked for Spanish outlets Publico, La Sexta and Gara. He also worked as a freelancer for Voice of America in 2020 and 2021 and the public broadcasters Deutsche Welle and EFE.
VOA hired Gonzalez via a third-party freelance media platform. After learning of his arrest in Poland, the broadcaster removed his content.
Deutsche Welle did not reply to a request for comment. But Miguel Angel Oliver, president of EFE, told VOA: "We have not made any comment. Gonzalez worked for EFE over two years ago. It was a brief collaboration principally about photographs at the start of the Ukraine war."
Colas said he thought Gonzalez came from "a wealthy Basque country family." It was a shock, he said, when Gonzalez emerged from a plane with a Russian hitman and other spies.
"I knew for a while that the Spanish secret services believed he was a spy. But this was still a shock for me," he said.
Intelligence services
Three different intelligence services had no doubt about where Gonzalez's real loyalties lay - even if his colleagues and many peers were in the dark.
Spanish secret services, who spoke on background to a VOA reporter, said they believed he was a Russian spy. And Polish security services said Gonzalez was included in the prisoner swap because of "common security issues" with the United States.
In a statement, they said: "Pavel Rubtsov, a GRU officer arrested in Poland in 2022, [had been] carrying out intelligence tasks in Europe."
Richard Moore, the head of Britain's foreign intelligence service MI6, said at the Aspen Security Forum in 2022 that Gonzalez was an "illegal" arrested in Poland after "masquerading as a Spanish journalist."
"He was going into Ukraine to be part of their destabilizing efforts there," Moore said.
Gonzalez has always denied spying for Russia.
His lawyer, Gonzalo Boye, noted the case of Evan Gershkovich, a Wall Street Journal reporter Russia detained on false espionage charges who was freed in the prisoner swap and welcomed by U.S. President Joe Biden.
"Nobody in the USA has questioned that Gershkovich was simply a journalist. We think that neither Gershkovich nor Pablo Gonzalez are spies, but journalists are trapped in a new kind of cold war, where truth matters little," he told VOA.
No media source currently available
Boye also acted as a lawyer for Edward Snowden and Carles Puigdemont, a fugitive former Catalan independence leader wanted in Spain on charges of embezzlement and misuse of public funds. (Boye himself has faced legal action, convicted in a 1996 trial involving Basque separatists.)
Gonzalez is now living in Russia, but his wife, Goiriena, still lives with the couple's three children in Spain's Basque country. She told VOA that she remains in touch with her husband daily by social media or telephone.
"So far there is no news of him coming back from Russia," she said. "I think he has to recover from everything he has been through."
While living in Warsaw in the run-up to Russia's invasion, Gonzalez had a girlfriend named in local media as Magdalena Chodownik. She is under investigation by Polish authorities for allegedly assisting espionage but denies any wrongdoing.
Chodownik, who has worked for several European outlets, declined to comment to VOA when asked about Gonzalez.
Spain's Foreign Ministry did not reply when asked by VOA if Gonzalez will be allowed to return to Spain to see his family while Poland has accused him of spying.